Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay

Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.

Graphene Replaced with Copper

Graphene replaced with copper Graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper Recent research into the properties of graphene nanoribbons provides two new reasons for using the material for interconnects in future computer chips. In widths as narrow as 16 nm, graphene has a current-carrying capacity approximately a thousand times greater than copper while providing improved thermal conductivity. The current-carrying and heat-transfer measurements were reported by a team of researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, GA). The same team had previously reported measurements of resistivity in graphene that suggest the material’s conductance would outperform that of copper in future generations of nanometer-scale interconnects. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity two orders of magnitude higher than copper at these size scales, according to Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer at Georgia Tech. {draw:frame} Composed of thin layers of graphite, graphene has been studied by the Georgia Tech team as a potential replacement for copper in on-chip interconnects wires. The graphene nanoribbons have a current-carrying capacity of more than 108 A/cm2, which makes them very robust in resisting electromigration and should greatly improve chip reliability. This electromigration phenomenon causes transport of material, especially at high-current density and leads to a break in the wire and, consequently, chip failure. The research team also discovered that the graphene nanoribbons also have excellent thermal conductivity properties and can conduct heat away from devices. They found that graphene nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of more than 1,000 W/m Kelvin for structures less than 20 nm wide. This will help the interconnects serve as heat spreaders in future generations of integrated circuits, according to Murali. They used electron beam lithography to construct four electrode contacts, then used lithography to fabricate devices consisting of parallel nanoribbons of widths ranging between 16 and 52 nm and lengths of between 0. 2 and 1  µm. The breakdown current density of the nanoribbons was then studied by slowly applying an increasing amount of current to the electrodes on either side of the parallel nanoribbons. A drop in current flow indicated the breakdown of one or more of the nanoribbons. In the study of 21 test devices, the researchers found that the breakdown current density of graphene nanoribbons has a reciprocal relationship to the resistivity. Because graphene can be patterned using conventional chip-making processes, manufacturers could make the transition from copper to graphene without a drastic change in chip fabrication. The data they developed so far look very promising for using this material as the basis for future on-chip interconnects. Visit www. youtube. com/watch? v=kd6zzwhfEqw to view a video explaining graphene’s thermal-conductivity capabilities. Though one of graphene’s key properties is reported to be ballistic transport—meaning electrons can flow through it without resistance—the material’s actual conductance is limited by factors that include scattering from impurities, line-edge roughness and from substrate phonons—vibrations in the substrate lattice. Use of graphene interconnects could help facilitate continuing increases in integrated circuit performance once features sizes drop to approximately 20 nanometers, which could happen in the next five years, researchers said. At that scale, the increased resistance of copper interconnects could offset performance increases, meaning that without other improvements, higher density wouldn’t produce faster integrated circuits. This is not a roadblock to achieving scaling from one generation to the next, but it is a roadblock to achieving increased performance. Dimensional scaling could continue, but because we would be giving up so much in terms of resistivity, we wouldn’t get a performance advantage from that. That’s the problem we hope to solve by switching to a different materials system for interconnects Survey in graphene replaced with copper PORTLAND, Ore. —Graphene will carry nearly 1,000-times more current and run over 10-times cooler than conventional copper interconnects below 22-nanometer line widths, according to researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). The speed (electron mobility) of graphene has already been touted as better than copper, but this Georgia Tech data on nanoribbons as small as 16-nanometers quantifies just how superior carbon is to copper. The graphene nanoribbons tested at Georgia Tech could carry as much as 10 billion amps per square centimeter—nearly a thousand times greater than copper. â€Å"No one had measured graphene's current carrying capacity before this,† said Raghunath Murali, a senior research engineer in Georgia Tech's Nanotechnology Research Center. One possible reason that this property of graphene was not touted before is that there were no experimental results until our work. † The superior current carrying capability of carbon formed into graphene nanoribbons is also combined with less heat build-up, since carbon's thermal conductivity is much higher than copper. Nanoribbons have a thermal conductivity of 1,000-to-5000 watts per meter Kelvin—ten times greater than copper . The Georgia Tech researchers also claim that graphene nanoribbons will mitigate electro-migration which is an increasing problem for copper as line widths descend to the nanoscale. If the current carried through a wire is close to the current-carrying capacity of the wire, then the chances of electromigration are greater than if the current in the wire is much smaller than the current-carrying capacity,† said Murali. â€Å"Graphene has over two orders of magnitude greater capacity than copper, thus if a graphene wire is compared to a copper wire carrying the same current, then the graphene wire will better resist electromigration. † Murali's team obtained their graphene samples by removing layers from a graphite block and depositing them on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. E-beam lithograhy was used to construct the metal contacts and cut the parallel lines of graphene into lines 16-to-52 nanometers wide and 200-to-1000 nanometers long. There are three hurdles remaining to commercialization of carbon interrconnects, according to the researchers at Georgia Tech: perfecting methods of growing monolayers of graphene over entire wafers (since today only small centimeter-sized areas can be easiliy grown in monolayers), fabricating vias to interrconnect graphene nanowires, and integration of carbon into the back-end of process on a CMOS line. Murali performed the work with fellow researchers Yinxiao Yang, Kevin Brenner, Thomas Beck and James Meindl. This research was funded by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Interconnect Focus Center, the Nanoelectronics Research Initiative and the Institute for Nanoelectronics Discovery and Exploration (INDEX). Replacing silicon {draw:frame} Silicon transisitors are approaching the point where further miniturization will no longer be possible. It is expected that once silicon transistors reach 16nm size, optical lithography will no longer be capable of making smaller images. Thus, unless all preogress in transistor size is terminated and performance improvements are limited to processor architecture alone, it is very likely that chip manufacturers will move to graphene as a way to get smaller transisitors. One example is that graphene transistors are very â€Å"leaky† compared to those made of silicon- that is, more charge can escape from them. This means that graphene chips are likely to run much hotter than silicon chips. Graphene has several very appealing traits. Electrons meet much less resistance from graphene than they do from silicon, traveling through it more than 100 times as easily. And because graphene is essentially a two-dimensional material, building smaller devices with it and controlling the flow of electricity within them are easier than with three-dimensional alternatives like silicon transistors. The finding underscores graphene's potential for serving as an excellent electronic material, such as silicon, that can be used to develop new kinds of transistors based on quantum physics. Because they encounter no obstacles, the electrons in graphene roam freely across the sheet of carbon, conducting electric charge with extremely low resistance. The research team, led by Chun Ning (Jeanie) Lau, found that the electrons in graphene are reflected back by the only obstacle they meet: graphene's boundaries. â€Å"These electrons meet no other obstacles and behave like quantum billiard balls. â€Å"They display properties that resemble both particles and waves. † when the electrons are reflected from one of the boundaries of graphene, the original and reflected components of the electron can interfere with each other, the way outgoing ripples in a pond might interfere with ripples reflected back from the banks. he â€Å"electronic interference† by measuring graphene's electrical conductivity at extremely low (0. 26 Kelvin) temperatures. She explained that at such low temperatures the quantum properties of electrons can be studied more easily. The electrons in graphene can display wave-like properties, which could lead to interesting applications such as ballistic transistors, which is a new type of transistor, as w ell as resonant cavities for electrons, that a resonant cavity is a chamber, like a kitchen microwave, in which waves can bounce back and forth. Scientifically, it has become a new odel system for condensed-matter physics, the branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of solid materials. Graphene enables table-top experimental tests of a number of phenomena in physics involving quantum mechanics and relativity. Bearing excellent material properties, such as high current-carrying capacity and thermal conductivity, graphene ideally is suited for creating components for semiconductor circuits and computers comparing with silicon. Its planar geometry allows the fabrication of electronic devices and the tailoring of a variety of electrical properties. Because it is only one-atom thick, it can potentially be used to make ultra-small devices and further miniaturize electronics. Image shows graphene, which can act as an atomic-scale billiard table, with electric charges acting as billiard balls. (Credit: Lau lab, UC-Riverside) Silicon has been the main ingredient in microchips since they replaced vacuum tubes in electronics. But the common element graphene, found in pencils, may one day supplant silicon on the billion-dollar foundries of IBM, Intel and AMD. Graphene shares the characteristics that make silicon so ubiquitous, not just in computers and cell phones, but in such applications as medical and aviation sensors, ultrahigh-frequency analog electronics for preparing signals for fiber-optic transmission or for radars. Graphene can do what silicon can, only better. Graphene has extraordinary electron-transport properties; its monolayer thickness yields exquisite sensitivity to changes in environment, and its mechanical and thermal properties equal or exceed those of the best conventional materials. The superior properties of graphene and graphene-related materials present an extraordinary opportunity for enabling new classes of electronic, optoelectronic and electromechanical devices and sensors The first commercial use for graphene may be as an electrical coating for LCD screens, solar cells, and touch screens. Thin, transparent, extremely conductive, and strong, it seems ideal for the job. ONE OF THE APPLICATION Graphene Quilts to Keep Things Cool December 21, 2009 {draw:frame} Graphene University of California, Riverside (UCR) Professor of Electrical Engineering and Chair of Materials Science and Engineering Alexander Balandin is leading several projects to explore ways to use the unique capabilities of graphene â€Å"quilts† as heat conductors in high-power electronics. Graphene is a recently discovered single-atom-thick carbon crystal, which reveals many unique properties. In Balandin’s designs, graphene â€Å"quilts† (large-area overlapping networks of graphene flakes) will play quite an opposite role of your grandma’s quilts. They will remove heat instead of retaining it. His work on graphene heat-conducting coats for heat removal from high-power gallium-nitride transistors is being funded by a recently awarded $420,000 grant from U. S. Office of Naval Research (ONR). It aims at an experimental proof-of-concept demonstration to be conducted in Balandin’s Nano-Device Laboratory (NDL). In addition to the ONR grant, Balandin received a new three-year subcontract with the Interconnect Focus Center (IFC), based at the Georgia Institute of Technology, that deals with graphene interconnects and heat spreaders for three-dimensional (3-D) electronics. According to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, in the next five years, up to 80 percent of microprocessor power will be consumed by the interconnect wiring—a driver for the search for new interconnect materials and innovative methods of heat removal. Another recent subcontract awarded to Balandin is with the Functional Engineered Nano Architectonics (FENA) center based at UCLA. In this center, he investigates the problems of energy dissipation in graphene nanostructures and nanodevices. Combined new funding secured by Balandin this month for the three projects exceeds $1 million. The centers’ funding comes from the Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC) and Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). Because graphene is only one molecule thick, it didn’t lend itself to traditional methods of thermal conductivity measurement. Balandin led a team of researchers that first measured it using an original non-conventional technique in 2008. The procedure involved a non-contact approach on the basis of Raman spectroscopy utilizing the inelastic scattering of photons (light) by phonons (crystal vibrations). The power dissipated in graphene and corresponding temperature rise were detected by extremely small shifts in the wavelength of the light scattered from graphene. That was sufficient to extract the values of the thermal conductivity through an elaborate mathematical procedure. Balandin’s research group discovered that the thermal conductivity of large suspended graphene sheets varies in the range from about 3000 to 5300 W/mK (watts per meter per degree Kelvin) near room temperature. These are very high values, which exceed those of carbon nanotubes (3,000-3,500 W/mK) and diamond (1,000-2,200 W/mK). As a result of his findings, Balandin has proposed several innovative graphene-based approaches for thermal management , which might lead to creation of a new technology for local cooling and hot-spot spreading in the high-power-density and ultra-fast chips. A detailed description of Balandin’s graphene and thermal management research can be found in his invited popular science article, â€Å"Chill Out,† in the October 2009 issue of IEEE Spectrum, the magazine of the The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE).

GMO Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GMO - Essay Example Unfortunately, majority of the people were against their existence in the country and made pleads to the government for them to be extremely regulated or better still completely banned. Consequently, it should be noted that as of now, Genetically Modified Organisms such as plants have both pro and cons that should be critically analyzed before they are let to be used in a particular countries or otherwise. Basically, Genetically Modified Organisms (plants) are denoted as crops that are generated for the sole purpose of making easier consumption by human beings and animals where the latest molecular techniques in biology are used. For instance, plants geneticists are responsible for the isolation of genes that are said to bring about drought tolerance and replace with those that are drought resistance (FAOUN 5) In this regard, the emergence and continuous existence of the Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) plants could only be deemed as proper and as such should be allowed across the world. Scientists have continually argued that, it is through the use of such plants that the world will experience the impact of technology and the increase in food availability. Of most importance is that since the inception of these plants, it is believed that the world’s population has increased with approximately six billion people and it is believed that trend will continue in the next few years. FAOUN (7) argues that Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) have been confirmed as been resistant to pest. For instance, it has been affirmed that losses emanating from insect pests have adversely impacted farming negatively through financial losses and lack of adequate food in developing countries. Similarly, these organisms have also been confirmed to have disease tolerance particularly in viruses, bacteria and fungi which are known to facilitate diseases in most crops leading to reduced yields. Another aspect that should encourage the continuous

Business Ethics and the Role of the Corporation Essay

Business Ethics and the Role of the Corporation - Essay Example For years, questions are raised on compliance of ethical values whereby many that violate laws, regard to have done so due to a loophole in the law. In this case, their defenses majors on strict compliance with laws that ignores ethical issues of fairness and honesty. Experts such as Dr Michael Novak provide insightful thoughts towards this discussion as he explore on business ethics and the role of the corporation. In examining this, I will answer the following questions as I seek to expound on Dr Novak views on business ethics and the role of the corporation. 1. Why does Dr. Novak have two sets of responsibilities for his definition of business ethics In his thought, Dr. Novak has two sets of responsibilities, which explore on the discussion of business ethics, which involves meeting the responsibilities of small businesses and corporations. The main reason why the Dr. Novak has two sets of responsibilities for his definition of business ethics is because they are vital behaviors t hat augment success. Business ethics regards an individual who has mastered habits required to fulfill his or her objectives. In his discussion, Dr Novak affirms that, a business serves the common good of the community it serves. In other words, it an economic association that seeks to satisfy customers with their commodities, increase profit margin, creates jobs opportunities and new wealth, and create a pleasing working environment where substantial work is rewarded to generate economic growth. It is considerable to discern that a business corporation falls under that category of augmenting economic growth, customer and employee satisfaction, and serving the community in honesty. Accordingly Dr Novak states that, a business ethic entails creating and imaging a World based on values of individuals, community, realism, creativity, and virtues of enterprises. In involves respecting individual rights to their own creativity and economic initiative. In this light, it means having a cul ture worth of the benefit of people, the needy, the business and community, and the maker. In a business set up, Dr, Novak regard ethics as the responsibilities of the small business and corporation to promote virtues of enterprise that initiate on creativity and economic initiative. 2. What does Dr. Novak say about the rule of law and its relationship to businesses? In his discussion, Dr. Novak creates notable insights on the rule of law and its relationship to business. He outlines that, the rule of law demands individuals or participants who have mastered habits required for business imperative. The rule of law of business springs its nature towards increasing customer satisfaction with commodities of values; augment a reasonable return on the Business Corporation and economic growth through economic initiatives such as creating job opportunities. This involves promoting ingenuity, invention, and progress through human enterprise, mind, and invention. Still, the statute of the la w majors on economic interests of citizens, establish a sense of community, respecting individuals rights hence, shaping a business culture that fosters virtues. With this in mind, the imperative of the law demands people in business to encourage their employees, shareholders to perceive policy issues and political ideas seriously, retires, and participating to electoral campaigns to vote. Following this, business cannot exist without the rule of law. Its relationship to the business entails the following. When individual rights are respected this would increase employee satisfaction, which increases work performance, and eventually boost economic growth. For success, businesses depend on individuals ready to work as a team. Contracts depend on the fulfillment of respect

Unit 6 assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Unit 6 assignment - Essay Example It is actually claimed, â€Å"Medicare fraud costs the U.S. government approximately $80 billion a year (Stefanacci, 2010). The first problem will require the researcher to evaluate the extent of Medicare fraud in the country. Secondly, the researcher will be interested in establishing the reasons or factors that lead to Medicare fraud. Patterns of fraud cases across different population settings will also be interesting aspect of the research. The purpose of the study is to interpret historical data relating to Medicare fraud in relation to the current situation. The researchers will also be interested in identifying patterns that relate to Medicare fraud. The research design will also analyze relevant case studies in order to establish their relationship with the current problem. 3. The criminal investigation department has ruled that Medicare fraud is a form of crime. What are the views of the people concerning the criminalization of Medicare fraud? (a) Do people consider Medicare fraud as a criminal activity? (b) Do people blame the authority for their misfortunes? The study will be conducted through qualitative research techniques whereby the researchers will be required to compare historical data with current trends in Medicare fraud. The choice of research method was inspired by the nature of the problem and availability of resources. Although the audience or the consumers of the research are interested in explicit relationships between different research problems, not all problems can be solved through explicit relationships (Creswell, 2008). The study will involve observing the problem and finding relevant literature that correspond to the research problem. From a perfectionist point of view, healthcare industry needs a near-perfect system of tracking Medicare fraud for there to be meaningful results. Fraud in healthcare industry affects all taxpayers (Michael,

The Prince by Nicollo Machiavelli Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The Prince by Nicollo Machiavelli - Essay Example I would not like to be ruled by a person who always thinks the worst of me. Another feature of Machiavelli’s world view that impacts upon the ordinary person is the fact that he thinks it is better for a prince to rely on fear than to rely on love. This implies that the rules of society in such a kingdom would be based on threats and punishments rather than on a relationship of affection between the people and the ruler. Fear is not a good basis for any human relationship because it distorts the way people behave and makes them want to avoid punishment as their first objective, rather than consider what the most proper or moral course of action would be. Machiavelli maintains that â€Å"a wise prince should rely on what he controls, and not on what he cannot control† (Machiavelli 56) and this shows that he does not believe in letting people use their free will. Rules would want robot-like obedience in their courtiers, and this would make it hard for ordinary people to e xpress any opinions that are different from the prevailing views. I think this is dangerous, because rulers who use power in this way are too distant from everyday life, and they cannot always know what is best. I think any country, or even any group or family, need to allow different opinions to be expressed so that fuller understanding can be gained and better decisions can be made. There is no reason why the prince’s view should always be the right one. I believe that living in this kingdom would have made the ordinary people cynical about power, and suspicious of anyone who was in a high position in society. The real problem with Machiavelli’s view of power is that he seems to think that military strength and power is enough on its own to guarantee stability: â€Å"If a despot could bring all of Italy under his rule, he believed, the country would benefit from effective government the same way that individual states had done† (Lewis 265). This may indeed be true in the short term, but later examples of history such as the rise of Hitler and Stalin show what happens when a despotic leader becomes too strong. Millions of people are murdered and the will of the ordinary person is crushed. This is no way to run a state and that is why I would not like to live under a prince who follows Machiavelli’s advice. 2. The Black Death The spread of plague across Europe in the middle of the fourteenth century affected every aspect of life. It must have been a terrible experience for ordinary families to see it coming closer and gradually taking the lives of men, women, and children in an arbitrary manner. In those times medical knowledge was inexact, and people were not sure what caused it and had no way of curing it.  

Benefits of Bespoke Construction Contracts Term Paper

Benefits of Bespoke Construction Contracts - Term Paper Example Bespoke Contracts are core parts of the construction industry. The contractual agreements developed in the context of the specific industry are usually based on general contracts – which refer to all tasks usually developed in the context of construction projects; however, a construction project may be quite complex and it needs to be based on a contract developed especially for it: a bespoke contract will be used in this case to cover all aspects of this project; in other words, Bespoke construction Contracts are contracts tailored to the needs of a specific construction project. It is possible that the development of a construction project is primarily based on a general construction contract; during the development of the project it is made clear that certain aspects of the project are not appropriately or adequately addressed; a Bespoke Contract will be used to cover any gaps in the provisions necessary for the successful development of the project; in the above case, the Bespoke Contract will have a supplementary role in the project’s completion (O’Reilly, 1999, p.37). In order to understand the value of Bespoke Contracts compared to the existing construction contracts, we should refer primarily to the role of Bespoke Contracts within the construction industry. Bespoke Contracts can be characterized as contracts of specific characteristics; their structure and their content are likely to be influenced by the conditions of the market, the willingness of the parties but also the demands of a particular construction project.   All the above factors can influence the effectiveness of Bespoke Contracts – either in the short or the long term. In the study of Cox et al. (1997) the contractual environment of UK is set under examination; it is noted that in the contractual relations developed in the context of the above industry are likely to include the following elements: ‘the relationship, the risk apportionment, the division of responsibilities and the reimbursement mechanism’ (Cox et al., 1997, p. 127).

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Report - Essay Example The essence of this system of accounting for Non Current assets is that; eventually, these assets have to be replaced and hence the best estimate for the company to use as the replacement cost of wearing away is depreciation. Accounting in the Income Statement Although IFRS has clearly spelt out that costs should be â€Å"capitalized as part of the cost of the asset if future economic benefits are probable and can be reliably measured† (Ernst &Young, 2009, p. 7), the model has not clearly specified clearly, how the units of account, used in long-term assets, should be determined. As such, the determination of a unit of account is based on the discretion of the management, who consider both the asset’s materiality and the intended use in order to fix the appropriate units. In respective of this view, the ‘minor spare parts’ should be considered less material and, therefore, treated as expenses under the Income Statement. The entire ? 5,700 should be accounte d for under this category. The other two categories of costs, including service contract (W4) and depreciation (W2), should be accounted for in the Income Statement since they are expensed. ... or the year ending 30 December 2012 is a sum of the depreciation before the review, of ?30,000 (W5.1) and the depreciation after the review, of ?52, 500 (W5.3). The essence of these calculations, in the context of a change in the original estimate of asset life, is that â€Å" the unamortised depreciable amount of the asset is charged to revenue over the revised remaining useful life.† (Accounting Standard [AS] 6, p. 5). Building X Accounting in the Income Statement Under IFRS (IAS 16), building X is treated as Property Plant and Equipment (PP&E) since it is held for the production of goods and services and it is a Non Current asset. An item under this category is measured at its cost less accumulated depreciation. Alternatively, an entity is at liberty to use revaluation model, considering the asset was revalued. In this respect, a depreciation of ?20,000, ?20,000 and ?40,000 will be accounted for in the Income Statement for the years ending 31 December 2010, 2011, and 2012 r espectively. In addition, the gain on revaluation will be reflected on the Income Statement at ? 1,620,000 (W 8.2). Accounting in the Balance Sheet Following revaluations at 31 December 2011 and 31 December 2012, for ?2 million and ?2.5 million respectively; the value of the cost that will appear in the Balance Sheet is ?1 million, ?1 million, ?2 million and ?2.5 million for the years ending 31 December 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 respectively (W 8.1). The respective accumulated depreciations for the years ending 31 December 2010, 2011, and 2012 will be ?60,000, ?80,000 and ?40,000 respectively. Therefore, the cost after revaluation, which will be accounted for the years ending 31 December 2011, 2012 and 2013 will be ?1,000,000, ?20,000 and ?2,500,000 respectively, all treated under Non Current

Literature Review on Working Capital Management Essay

Literature Review on Working Capital Management - Essay Example This review is composed of only those studies which have been published and made available through books, journals, magazines and internet. There is no doubt that working capital management is an indispensible part of everyday financial management of a firm. It is commonly understood that working capital requirement is related with the day to day operations of a firm and if the firm finds shortage of working capital, the firm is likely to face liquidity problem, which in turn affect the credit worthiness and the business as a whole. On the other hand, if the working capital position is too high, it does not sound good. Rather, it is a problem of lack of proper management. In other words, too much of working capital will affect the profitability by unnecessarily blocking funds in the current assets. Therefore, finding a proper balance between shortage and excess working capital is the key element of working capital management. The firm's liquidity and profitability are judged in terms of the working capital position of the firm. Jin Mcmenamin, in his famous book 'Financial Management: An Introduction', remarks that worki ng capital is an important measure of liquidity and volume of working capital determines the risk level. The more the working capital, less is the chance of a firm's bills are not met for payment (Mcmenamin, 1999). There have been evidences on the failure of firms that have faced either shortage or excess working capital. The short term financial decisions have got little interest among academicians in the past. However, with modern scholarly and empirical studies, the literature of working capital has grown much than ever before. M. Grass observes that shortage of working capital and excess of working capital have caused many firms to fail and has affected many firm in meeting their short term obligations (Grass, 1972). L.J. Gitman also is of the same argument that working capital management, especially for small firms is the factor that decides success or failure (Gitman, 1982). However, that does not mean that working capital is the only factor that decides the success of otherwi se of a firm. As mentioned in the above paragraph, working capital should neither be excess nor inadequate. Both these conditions are dangerous to a firm. However, working capital shortage is found to be more devastating and therefore, its occurrence should be avoided at all times. An imbalanced working capital position can be expressed through another dimension. Shortage of working capital endangers the liquidity and excess working capital affects the profitability adversely. Studies have been undertaken to empirically prove the evils of these tow danger situations. K Smith, in his paper remarks that working capital is significant because it directly affects the firm's profitability (Smith, 1980). J. B. Sarkar and Saha S N, in a case study entitled 'Profitability Crisis and Working Capital Management in the Public Sector in India', observe that the profitability of the selected public sector undertakings in India is suffered owing to inefficient working capital management (Sarkar, 1987). In anoth er study by A. K. Mukherjee entitled 'Management of Working Capital in Public Enterprises' concludes that firm's liquidity and profitability are negatively correlated (Mukherjee, 1988). He further observes that firms should avoid too much of investment in current assets, if

Production, Costs and Profits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Production, Costs and Profits - Essay Example However, after a certain level of output the marginal revenue product of labor starts diminishing with each additional unit of labor/worker. This means with each additional worker, although the output is increasing, but at a decreasing rate, i.e., negative marginal returns. If this continues, there might come a point at which output actually starts falling with addition of variable factor labor. Under such, if the capital has reached its limit/full capacity, the manager of the restaurant should consider adding a new grill and French fry machine as adding workers will only add to the costs and will not solve the problem (Rittenberg & Tregarthen, 2009, Chapter 8). Q: 2: Marginal Decision Rule: The marginal decision rule says that the optimal point is the one in which the marginal utility of the next unit is equal to its marginal cost. This rule was applied in this case when deciding how much labor and capital to use. Initially, the industries operating in the maquiladoras were very lab or incentive and only about 9% skilled labor was required to operate the existing setup. But then as the industry became more capital intensive, then more skilled labor were required and the percentage increased to 12% (Lucinda, 2001). Benefits: Although the capital and skilled labor were increasing in the Maquiladoras, but proper training was being given to them so that they can do the work properly and the marginal product rises instead of declining. Maquiladoras have benefitted US a lot. It has increased the business in the border areas. Moreover, it has created jobs for the people. Many manufacturers have also relocated in these areas. Due to this, the areas which were facing double digit unemployment have now generated enough jobs to reduce this unemployment. Moreover, the infrastructure has also developed in the areas where Maquiladoras are located in the US (Lucinda, 2001). Q.3 A generic drug company is one that produces drugs that are identical in essence (not literally) to branded drugs in dosage, strength, quality, intended use and performance characteristics. The chemical formulation is also similar and the name is often kept after the chemical name for marketing without much advertising. The generic drug industry, though still highly regulated, was given some relaxations under the Drug Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 after which the industry boomed. The fact that the generic drug companies do not have to invest much on the research and development as compared to branded drug companies is the single most important factor for the success of these companies. For any drug company, R & D is a huge investment that it makes in order to keep coming up with new and better drugs for the healthcare industry and forms a significant part of the overall manufacturing and marketing of a particular drug. Thus, the companies that simply take the chemical formula of branded drugs without investing on R & D themselves save on their costs and are a ble to sell the drug at a significant discount from the price of an identical branded drug. Thus, a cheaper drug with similar properties will obviously sell more. Secondly, with generic drug companies allowed to make identical drugs, the patents are unable to protect branded drug comp

The 5 Paragraph Essay Format Essay Example for Free

The 5 Paragraph Essay Format Essay This is only one method of organizing an essay.Introductory paragraphA. Catches the readers interestB. Gives brief background on your topicC. Begins or ends with the thesis statementBody (paragraphs 2, 3, etc.)A. Develops, expands, and/or supports the thesis statementB. Includes a topic sentence for each paragraphC. Includes supporting details which reinforce the topic sentence.Concluding paragraphA. Restates the thesis or sums up the argument.B. Tells the reader what you think is important to remember. (Often, this is a personal response). C. Never introduces new information in the conclusion. Extend your thinking on something from the essay. The 5 Paragraph Essay Format The first paragraph: 1) Begins with a topic sentence that introduces a general theme. 2) Follows the topic sentence with sentences that narrow the focus of the theme, so that it is less general. 3) Introduces the author of the text you are writing about. 4) Introduces the title of that text. 5) Narrows the discussion of the topic by identifying an issue or problem. 6) Finishes by making a debatable claim (a thesis statement, which is defined as a debatable point/claim). Body paragraphs: 1) Begin with topic sentences that clearly relate to the topic, or issue, or problem, which was identified in the introductory paragraph. 2) Sentences that elaborate on the issue, or problem discussed in the introductory paragraph, and also demonstrates a clear connection to the  thesis statement. 3) A sentence or sentences that make a claim about the topic, issue, problem. 4) A quote from the text you are analyzing that supports your claim. 5) Your interpretation of that quote, which explains how you arrived at your conclusion, and also demonstrates a clear connection to the thesis statement.  · Body parargraphs employ the One, Two, Three Rule, which is: 1) Make a debatable claim. 2) Support the claim with a quote. 3) Explain the connection between your claim and the quote, which means you make an intellectual conclusion. Concluding paragraph: 1) Begins with a topic sentence that clearly relates to the topic, or issue, or problem that was identified in the introductory paragraph. 2) Sentences that make connections with, or revisit, point from your introductory paragraph and your body paragraphs. These points now serve to close your argument. 3) A synthesis of these points that clearly demonstrates the focus of your thesis statement. 4) A final comment, or intellectual conclusion of sorts that points out the larger significance of your argument. Also see the handout How to Structure and Organize Your Essays. How to Structure and Organize Your Essays Structure and Organization: first of all, how do they differ? Structure simply means that each individual paragraph does what it is supposed to do. Alright then, what is a paragraph supposed to do? It depends what type of paragraph it is. The types of paragraphs are as follows: The introductory paragraph. The body paragraphs. The concluding paragraph. Basically, you just want to make certain that: Your introductory paragraph does its job. Your body paragraphs do their job. Your concluding paragraph does its job. For a one page handout that explains exactly what each paragraph must do, see The 5 Paragraph Essay Format. Okay, So Much for Structure, Now What About Organization? Organization is all about body paragraphs. Why? Because everything that comes between your first paragraph and last paragraph is a body paragraph. Your essay is mostly made up of body paragraphs. What is Organization? It is how you order the information. Think of it this way: in your essay you make a number of claims and provide much information that supports those claims. How you order claims and information is your essays organization. Example: You are writing a paper on the current state of research on human cloning. You decide to include two paragraphs of background information on the  history of cloning research. The two paragraphs appear on page four of your five page paper. Your professor suggests that the organization require revision because there is an abrupt shift in the essays narrative. Why after almost four full pages about the current state of cloning research does your reader get two paragraphs on history? Including history is fine, but perhaps it should be included at the beginning of the paper, so that your narrative moves from the early days of cloning research to the current state of cloning research. It is the same information, but ordered differently.

The Greatest Advantage Of Mass Media Media Essay

The Greatest Advantage Of Mass Media Media Essay The greatest advantage of mass media is the power to reach a large number of people all around the world in a very short period of time. It plays an important role in our everyday lives. Mass media influences our likes and dislikes, opinions regarding many important issues, views, behavior, our values and our style. Its primary purpose is to inform, but looking at it from the perspective of the viewer its main purpose is to entertain. On everyday basis children are being exposed to television and what is on it. Unfortunately, violence has taken over the entertainment world not only on television, but also in video games and movies. For many years massive amount of violence in media has been of great concern not just for parents, but also for researchers and psychologists. In this study my main focus is on the effects media violence has on children and how parents can approach children to reduce the effect of media violence. Before we take a further step into looking at the effects of violence in mass media let us define mass media. According to Lane, by definition, mass communication is a message created by a person or a group of people sent through a transmitting device (a medium) to a large audience or market.  [1]  To make it simpler mass media is: radio, television, film, newspapers, internet, books, video games and other devices that reach and influence people all over the world.2 The three main functions of mass media are to provide us with information and entertainment and allow us to kill boredom. As stated by Signorielli, the medium that is part of everyday life and most often used by us is the television. On average, or television set is on for more than seven hours each day. Children and older people are most likely to be exposed to more television than adolescents or adults.3 According to Signorielli, the Center for Media and Public Affairs isolated physical violence on ten channels (net work, independents and cable) during one day. Violence appeared most frequently during the afternoon (2 to 5 PM), with 191 acts per hour; early morning (6 to 9 AM), with 158 acts per hour; and prime time, with 102 acts per hour. 4 As said by Signorielli, most of the violent acts that are on television may channel the message that aggressive behaviors are not actually considered wrong. A lot of times characters who commit violence are not sorry for what they have done and they do not face any consequences for their actions. Additionally, television usually does not show the realism of violence and how things would turn out in real life for a person who has committed a crime such as stealing or murder. A lot of times violence on television is rather presented in the context of humor and comedy. Such messages may seem to be acceptable by viewers, especially children, and make them think that it is all right to follow such aggressive model behaviors.5 Researchers, who take an interest in media violence, especially televised violence, and in how it influences children, have put forward four findings: The first and perhaps most important factor is observational learning, which refers to the process through which people learn to imitate role models and types of behavior, especially if the behavior is perceived as being rewarded. This process seems to be at work not only in the imitation of televised aggression among children, but also in the influence of highly publicized murders, suicides, and prize fights among adults. The second factor is the change in attitudes that often occurs through television viewing. Studies have shown that children who watch substantial amounts of television are more likely than less avid viewers to accept aggressive behavior in other children. Other research suggests that violence on television can cultivate attitudes of suspicion and images of an extremely violent world in the minds of its viewers. A third possible factor is physiological arousal, the idea that viewers are stimulated by observing violence, to which they may nevertheless become desensitized over time, and that this arousal leads to, or is maintained by, subsequent aggressive activity. The fourth factor involves the process of justification. Many people who watch televised violence may already engage in violent behavior or possess aggressive tendencies, and may then find in television a form of justification for their actions.6 ________________________ 5 Nancy Signorielli, 33-34. 6 Brent D. Ruben and Todd Hunt, Mass Communication. Consumers and Producers, (New York; HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993), 85-86. Looking at the above findings it can be concluded that violence in media has a huge effect on children, as well as on adults. But let us not jump to conclusions and take a closer look at these situations and interpret them with greater attention to detail and with reference to facts. There is a great controversy whether media violence has any impact on childrens behavior. A single conclusion has not been reached, but enough data has been gathered to give attention to many important facts. Researchers have been investigating the effects of mass media through two leading approaches: The survey is carried out in the real world and usually consists of a large group of individuals who answer questions put to them via a questionnaire A special kind of survey, a panel survey, allows researchers to be more confident about attributing patterns of cause and effect in survey data. The panel study collects data from the same people at two or more different points in time. As a result, it is possible, using sophisticated techniques that control the effects of other variables, to see if viewing televised violence at an early age is related to aggressive behavior at a later date. The experiment is performed in a laboratory and usually consists of the controlled manipulation of a single factor to determine its impact on another factor. A special kind of experiment, a field experiment, is conducted in a real-life setting. Field experiments are more realistic than laboratory experiments but they are also harder to control.7 Media violence has not just been a concern of parents, researchers and psychologists, but also of government. All the studies that have been conducted over the years have been done so through laboratory experiments and field studies. According to the article Research on the Effects of Media Violence, hundreds of studies conducted over the years proof that exposure to media violence causes children to behave more aggressively and affects them as adults years later.8 The article also mentions that in 1956, a laboratory experiment has been conducted on 24 ___________________________ 7 Joseph R. Dominick, The Dynamics of Mass Communication; 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990), 530-531. 8 Media Awareness Network, Research on the Effects of Media Violence, (2010), http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/effects_media_violence.cfm . children. Researchers have divided these children into two equal groups. The research focused on children watching television, in this case cartoons and their behavior afterwards. One of the groups watched an episode of Woody Woodpecker, which contained violent acts, and the other watched an episode of The Little Red Hen, which was free of violence. Afterwards all 24 children were taken into the same room to play. The researchers have noticed that boys and girls, who have seen, Woody Woodpecker, acted more violently than children that have seen the non-violent one. Children who have seen an episode of Woody Woodpecker were more violent toward other children and were the ones to break things. The article Research on the Effects of Media Violence mentions, Jeffrey Johnson, a professor at the University of Columbia, who for 17 years has observed 707 different families in upstate New York. He started in 1975 and concluded his studies in 2002. As a result he declared that boys and girls w ho were exposed to a few hours of television on daily basis were more likely to be aggressive as adults. He stated that 60 percent of those children were more likely to get into fights and be aggressive toward others.9 As stated by Hunt, over the years the government has commissioned studies to prove that media violence contributes towards aggressive behavior in children. In the 1960s two commissions have been set up by the government the National Commission on the Cause and Prevention of Violence and the Surgeon Generals Scientific Advisory Committee on TV and Social Behavior to take up studies in how media violence affects children. Two methods, laboratory experiments and field studies, were used in those studies. As a result it has been determined that viewing violence on TV contributes to violent or aggressive behavior in viewers. 10 Going back to what the researchers have found Smith states that, observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, is a form of learning in which people acquire new behavior by watching someone else perform that behavior. The person performing the behavior is known as the model, and the learner is known as the observer.11 Observational learning is the process of children imitating characters from TV and their behaviors. According to Dominick, the best known observational learning researcher is Albert Bandura and his experiment with a rubber doll called Bobo doll.12 ____________________________ 9 Media Awareness Network, http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/effects_media_violence.cfm . 10 Brent D. Ruben and Todd Hunt, 83. 11 S.E. Smith, What is observational learning?, (September 8, 2010), http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-observational-learning.htm. 12 Joseph R. Dominick, 540. Through the experiment that has been conducted in the 1960s by Albert Bnadura and his co-workers showed that violence on TV and movies were serving as a school of violence.13 As stated by Dominick, in one of the experiments, that Bandura performed, preschool children were seated in front a film in which a person acted aggressively towards a rubber doll. Children who have seen the film and were placed in the same situation with the rubber doll acted quite more violently towards the doll than those children who have not seen the film before. In recent years a similar experiment has been conducted except this time a human being dressed as a clown took over the role of the rubber doll. A large number of children attacked the clown with aggression although it was a smaller number than in the case of the rubber doll. However, this only pertains to the children who have seen the film. Those who have not seen it did not take up such actions. It has also been concluded from this experiment th at children who were given a prize for being aggressive and who saw that the people in the movie were also being rewarded for it were far more violent.14 This experiment showed that children imitate actions that they see on TV. They want to be and act alike because they think it is acceptable to do so. I think that parents play a large role here since it is their duty to talk to their children and help them distinguish right from wrong. To argue the other side of this experiment, Dominick states, there is some evidence to suggest that media violence may not be entirely responsible for aggressive behavior in children. To begin with, films that are made for such experiments, as the one with the Bobo doll, are produced especially for that experiment. They are often short in length and focus on a single situation. The film usually does not show the motives for that kind of action and the consequences that may take place after. The other point to consider is the amount of violence that children were exposed to before since it may also have an impact on how they act. If they find themselves in a surrounding that is similar, they will feel more comfortable watching it and are more likely to behave aggressively.15 Viewers who are exposed to a massive amount of media violence, according to Anderson, are more likely to think of the world as the place where violence is the only way to get what we want and that it is composed of brutality and fear. Children who are in constant contact _______________________ 13 Joseph R. Dominick, 540. 14 Joseph R. Dominick, 541. 15 Joseph R. Dominick, 541. with media violence are more likely to accept violence in other children.16 To better understand why violence in mass media may have an influence on children we have to look at the amount of time that children are being exposed to such mediums every day. In the past few years, the amount of violence in mass media has greatly increased, and the amount of time that children spent in front of the television, playing video games and watching action shows.17 According to Shapley and the survey that has been conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, todays kids are working the equivalent of a full-time job consuming media: 7 hours and 38 minutes every day, on average. 18 These days it seems that media devices have taken over childrens lives, but that should not be a surprise since we live in a world filled with technological devices. It is more a matter of how much time parents allow their children to be exposed to such devices. Hutton stated that, the other thing that has been of great concern is that children have become masters of multitasking. They are able t o divide their attention between two or more devices at the same time.19 Counting each device separately, these kids have found a way to cram in a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes of media content into those 7 and a half hours. 20 During that time children will witness hundreds of violent acts and for many it will be difficult to tell the difference of what is real and what is fiction. According to the article Violence in Media Entertainment, two professors from Laval University, Guy Paquette and Jacques de Guise, have carried out a study from 1993 until 2001. They have examined various programs, including children programming, on six Canadian television networks. Their studies have shown that the number of violence acts on television has risen by 378 per cent that is between the years 1993 and 2001. Violence acts on television have not just increased in number, but also in quality. Media violence has become more brutal, bloodier, uglier and due to great technology more realistic.21 Many times it is shown on TV that violence is a good and adequate way to get what you ______________________ 16Craig A. Anderson, et al., The Influence of Media Violence on Youth; Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 2003), http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi43.pdf . 17Lindsay Hutton, The M2 Generation. Are Your Kids Too Dependent on the Media? http://life.familyeducation.com/computers/television/65248.html. 18 Dan Shapley, Kids Spend Nearly 55 Hours a Week Watching TV, Texting, Playing Video Gamesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, (January 20, 2010) http://www.thedailygreen.com/environmental-news/latest/kids-television-47102701. 19Lindsay Hutton, http://life.familyeducation.com/computers/television/65248.html. 20 Lindsay Hutton, http://life.familyeducation.com/computers/television/65248.html. 21 Media Awareness Network (2010), Violence in Media Entertainment, http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/violence_entertainment.cfm want. According to the article How TV Affects your Children, youngsters are usually taught to copy the actions of good guys, but these good guys sometimes push themselves to violent acts themselves to achieve something. All parents teach their children that kicking, hitting or biting is wrong. On the other hand we see that television shows kids otherwise; it shows them that it is acceptable for good guys to do so. Who are the children to believe? All this may lead children to become confused and disorientated. Since many children want to imitate their favorite TV characters they may push themselves to aggressive behaviors to get want they want, moreover, they may feel unsafe in their environment and fear that something bad may come their way. 22 Children who are exposed to massive amounts of violence are less likely to feel any sympathy for victims of violent acts. They may get the impression that being a victim is all right. According to Cardwell and Flanagan: Under normal conditions, anxiety about violence inhabits its use. Media violence may, however, stimulate aggressive behavior by desensitizing children to the effects of violence. The more televised violence a child watches, the more acceptable aggressive behavior becomes for the child. Frequent viewing of television violence may cause children to be less anxious about violence. Therefore those who become desensitized to violence may perceive it as normal and be more likely to engage in violence themselves. 23 Due to the massive exposure of media violence children become desensitized to real acts of violence. This exposure decreases the feeling of empathy and concern towards victims of real violence. Children, who watch tremendous amount of media violence, become indifferent to media violence and in the long run to the violence and victims of violence in real life. According to Gelletly and a study that Dr. David Satcher has conducted, Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General, media violence is a probable factor for acts of children violence. Gelletly also states that in some cases of violence there are similarities and imitations of movie characters that the children saw. Let us look at the year 1993, when a two-year-old child was kidnapped and murder by two eleven-year-old boys. This crime has occurred after the ______________________ 22KidsHealth from Nemours. How TV Affects Your Child http://kidshealth.org/parent/positive/family/tv_affects_child.html 23 Mike Cardwell and Cara Flanagan , Psychology A2. A Complete Companion, (United Kingdom; Nelson Thomas LTD., 2004), 52. boys have seen the movie Childs Play 3. Those two eleven-year-old boys were imitating the main characters in the movie. To shortly summarize the movie is about two boys who try to kill a doll that is possessed by evil. Another incident happened in 1995, when a group of teenagers set a New York City subway employee on fire. This has been an imitation of a scene from a movie that has been released the same year as that incident took place. In 1998, a twelve-year-old from Maryland committed suicide leaving a letter citing a cartoon character, Kenny, from the show South Park. Another eleven-year-old hangs himself and it is believed that he has been triggered by Kennys character to do so. It was reported that a few days before his death he mentioned a couple of times that it is OK if he dies because he will be back and everything would be normal.24 In a way media should be blamed for all these incidents because we can see a definite connection between media violence and real-life. We do n ot know the true story behind these incidents and what really forced these children to commit such acts, but we can see that media violence had been an inspiration for them. Additionally, Gelletly states that, it would be a mistake to deny the fact that these copycat crimes are not in a small portion the result of media violence that children are being exposed to. 25 Media violence and its influence have been of concern for decades. Somewhat cautiously it can be said that media violence has affected children in the past and still is. Levine stated that, there is no question that children learn from the television shows and movies they watch.26 By far media has the greatest influence on our children since children spend more of their free time exposed to mediums than enjoying the outside or studying. However, according to Levine, parents can take action and lower the exposure of their children to violence or take part in what they are watching.27 Levine emphasis that the first step that parents should take is to limit the time that children sit in front of the television or spend time using other mediums, but most importantly parents should be a part of what their children watch. Studies have shown that shows and movies that children watch do not grab their parents attention.28 Less than half of all parents monitor __________________ 24 LeeAnne Gelletly , Violence in the Media, (Michigan; Thomson Gale Corp, 2005), 62-65. 25 LeeAnne Gelletly 62-65. 26 Madeline Levine, See No Evil. A Guide to Protecting Our Children from Media Violence, (San Francisco; Jossey-Bass Publishers 1998), 199. 25 Madeline Levine, 199. 28 Madeline Levine, 206-207. their childs television viewing. 29 Levine stated that, the only concern that parents have when it comes to watching television is the time their children stay up. It is impossible for parents to sit at all times with their children and watch television, but at least parents should get a sense of what their children are watching.30 Once parents are somewhat aware of what their children like and are interested in, they can develop a plan to help their child avoid the worst of what TV offers and enjoy the best. 31 If parents get the opportunity to watch television with their children they should bring up discussions about what they are watching. As said by Levine, the discussion could focus on how the cartoon character or the actor could solve its problems without the use of violence. Many times television avoids showing the consequences of violent behavior of its actors. This could encourage a discussion on what consequences would there be in real life.32 Parents should help their chi ldren understand right from wrong and help them realize that violence is not the answer to our problems and that what they see on television is not always acceptable in real life. Over the years hundreds of studies have been conducted and have shown that aggressive behaviors that children develop are the results of media violence that children have soaked up over the years. The massive amounts of violence that children are exposed to everyday make them think that violence is an efficient way in solving their problems and it may lead to real-life violence. Television has become the number one medium of visual violence. As it has been mentioned above children watch the same amount of television as if they were working a full-time job. The use of mediums takes up most of the time that children have for themselves during the day and the time that they should spend on other activities. Violence is everywhere whether in cartoons, movies, news, or the Internet; it has taken over the entertainment world and the world of our children. Parents should place boundaries at the amount of time that their children spend watching TV and limit the amount of media violence in th eir lives and most importantly encourage discussions on media violence. Parents should not use mediums as babysitters and they should pay attention to what their children watch, play or what websites they view online. _______________________ 29 Madeline Levine, 207. 30 Madeline Levine, 208. 31 Madeline Levine, 208. 32 Madeline Levine, 208.

Alfred Hitchcock And Rear Window

Alfred Hitchcock And Rear Window Before Hitchcock became a world-famous director, he was an art director and a set designer. As a result of these experiences, he made huge effort in the design of the set of Rear Window. The set of design in Rear Window can be defined as theatrical, showing only few sets: Jeffs apartment, the courtyard, the complex building, and the tightly street from Jeffs apartment view. Essentially, all of them have no connection but Hitchcock used the cinematic technology to connect Jeffs story and his neighbor. Besides the cinematic technology, Jeffs neurotic or psychotic behavior connects the neighbor in the story of the movie. There are two kinds of narrations Jeff and Hitchcock. The narrative story is about Jeff and Hitchcock points of view and perspective of the neighbor. In some level, it means the reflection of Jeffs feeling and the exploration of the relationship between omniscient (Hitchcock) and subjective (Jeff) narrators. From Rear Window, both of the narrators (i.e. Hitchcock and J eff) reflects Jeff psychological conditions such as anxiety because of career and marriage from the neighbors life through the cinematic technology such as camera movement, framing and editing. The sequence from 2:25-3:32 shows Jeffs anxiety, ambivalence and desire mainly about his career through the camera cuts to various windows of neighbor. The sequence starts when Jeff is sleeping; therefore the camera movement is Hitchcocks prospective. Compare to Jeffs point of view shots in the movie, the camera movement of Hitchcock narration is more mobile. Jeffs narration is shot reaction shot, it reflects his immobility because of his broken leg. On the other hand, Hitchcock as omniscient narrator narrates through the camera movement to engage us in the cause and effect logic to assemble Jeffs story and background; so the audience can understand why Jeff attempted to do later of the films. Hitchcock simply introduced Jeffs neighbor to the audience around the courtyard. Actually he is telling the story of Jeff to the audience. First, the camera cuts to the studio of songwriter who turned off the radio. He turns it off because the announcers question struck the songwriters anxiety. At the same time, the question about the marriage of Lisa causes anxiety to Jeff. He doubts if he is not the right man for Lisa. The photos in her apartment showed that he loves freedom and adventure. More importantly, he is not as rich as Lisa. Therefore he cannot provide the quality of that Lisa is used to be. He is no longer young and he doesnt have a studio. Both of them evade their problems. The songwriter turns off the radio because he doesnt want to face his problem. He thinks there is no way to solve the problem. At the same time, Jeff has no confidence on taking care Lisa as a photographer. It is one of the reasons why he refused Lisas engagement later. Miss Torso showed when the camera continues to pan left after the songwriter, and the childless couples. It is a long shot of her dancing practice in the apartment. The camera focused on her leg that reflected Jeffs desire of physical freedom and his broken leg. He is forced to be immobile; therefore he cannot pursue his goal. He worries about being able to renew his artistic abilities as a photographer after his recovery. Jeff admires the dancer because of the huge efforts she exerted while dancing. He also wants to practice as hard as the dancer. As a photographer, it is shame that he cant take photo in front of the attractive girl; therefore he chose to voyeur. Furthermore, the attractive dancer holds the attention of both Jeff and audiences. In many cases, female characters are the visual pleasure of males in many Hollywood movies. Voyeurism in Rear Window is largely a masculine activity. Jeff understands that unlike the relationship, there is no responsibility after his voyeur. He would rather watch Miss Torso than touch the women next to him. It shows how he tries to escape the marriage and the love of Lisa. Also, Rear Window exposed the psychological obsession of the society. Besides that, Laura Mulvey intensively analyzed the serious voyeurism of Jeff and even Hitchcock in her article called The Oppositional Gaze where she reveals that when Lisa across to the salesman apartment from Jeff apartment, their relationship changed dramatically. It is the first time he uses the lens to voyeur Lisa in distant which is comparable to his voyeurism to Miss Torso. Nevertheless, Mulvey claims that voyeurism is a positive practice. She borrowed Freu ds idea to describe that the audience projects the repressed desire to the female or female character through the point of view editing and identifying the spectator. Most part of the movie are in Jeffs and Hitchcocks point of view. It completely clarifies how the unconscious patriarchal society constructed much of the events in the film. According to Woolrich, the movie is all about women and violence. The scholar Anthony J. Mazzella claims that Apart from the murder victim, the mistress, the forerunner of Miss Lonelyhearts, and the newlywed wife, there are no major women characters in the story. There is no Miss Torsoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ no Lisa Carol Fremont. (63) The role of women play in the movie is for the male gaze and satisfying the audiences voyeurism. Mazzella informs that in the movie, Mrs. Thorwald was chopped and scattered in the East River. On the other hand, Mr. Thorwald buried her whole body apartment building. The story of film is more attractive to the audience when Jeffs story links with more violence, women then Woolrichs story only links to violence. The next camera sees the children playing, dancing and laughing around the street- cleaning truck wherein the children can cool off by the spray of the truck. Hitchcock is telling through this shot that Jeff is longing. Jeff wants to be like the children who can cool off by the truck in the hot and moist weather. The function of this shot is a wish- an expression of Jeffs desire. Jeff is forced at home already six weeks. He looks like the bird in the cage which showed in the camera before moving back into Jeffs apartment and bringing the prospective from Hitchcock to Jeff. These images function like a mirror to project desires and fears from Jeffs psyche After Hitchcocks prospective of Jeffs feeling, it is point to another scene of Jeff. Now, it is Jeffs turn to tell his psyche about marriage to the audience reflect from his neighbor. In the dialogue with the visiting nurse, Stella; Jeff stated again that Lisa would not be able to adapt his adventurous life, but the truth is that he is afraid that he cannot adapt himself to her needs since he is the exact opposite in her love of fashion, comfort and wealth. It reflected on the newlyweds on the left. Although Jeff feels good about the marriage from the newlyweds in the first time; he slowly realized that the young wifes sexual demands increases and the husband find it difficult to satisfy. In this movie, most of the female characters such as the young wife, Mrs. Thorwald, Miss Lonelyhearts and Lisa rely on the male and asking something from man. The young wife increasing sexual demands, Mrs. Thorwalds constant need for attention from Mr. Thorwald, Miss Lonelyheartss desire of love, an d Lisas desire of stable marriage are showed and threatened Jeff. In the point of view editing links Jeff and the Thorwalds during the phone conversation with Gunnison, his editor at the magazine. It is the first time in the movie that the dialogue and the visual action coincide. As they talk off- screen about marriage, the camera shows Mr. Thorwald and Mrs. Thorwald are arguing. The bad marriage and estrangement relationship also shows in the decoration of the Thorwalds apartment. They occupy separate rooms- Mr. Thorwald, the living room; Mrs. Thorwald, the bedroom. Additionally, the colors of the walls of these rooms are different wherein Mrs. Thorwalds bedroom was painted in a cool color while Mr. Thorwalds living room is painted with warm color. It means Mrs. Thorwald feels suffering and depressing on the invalid and the disloyalty of herhusband. Although Mr. Thorwald suffers the nagging from his wife, he has a mistress; therefore, the color is in warm tone. In Jeffs perception of the Thorwalds marriage is a kind of prison or like a bird trappe d inside the cage. Jeff and Thorwalds are denied of the freedom to move. It refers not only his present immobility of his broken leg but also to his possible marriage to Lisa. The mirroring of shots of dinner with Lisa is more complex than the conversation between Jeff and Gunnison. The dinner shot was built around a pattern of alternation from story- space to story- space or from Jeff as actor to Jeff as spectator. The editing here is same as other point of view shots to establish Jeffs voyeuristic interest in his neighbor. As Lisa prepares dinner for Jeff, Jeff watches Miss Lonelyhearts and links the implicit similarity between her and Lisa who are preparing dinner for a man who is not really here for them. Furthermore when Lisa begins to set the table for dinner, Jeff also looks at Thorwalds who is having dinner. Jeff and Mrs. Thorwald have the implicit similarity which they rebuffed their partners dinner preparing. It shows the relationship of Jeff and Lisa is as worst as the Thorwalds. The Thorwalds marriage made Jeff not to believe in marriage. He doesnt want his marriage look be the same as the Thorwalds; therefore, he denied it to Lisa. Jeff identi fies himself and Mr. Thorwald as unstable men. Jeff likes to take adventure to seek the art and Mr. Thorwald just wants to fool around. Hitchcocks great achievement in the period of his career was showed by Rear Window. Through the narration of Hitchcock and Jeff, the audience realizes Jeffs changing. Before, he likes to put himself in risk and adventure as showed in the photos in the apartment. Jeff develops the narration of Hitchcock by his investigation of the murder case. Finally, Jeff paid the cost of voyeur which his two legs are broken. He decides not voyeur and sleep peacefully. In the final shot about the neighbor is the newlywed wife nagging the husband by Hitchcocks narration. It tells us although the Thorwalds story is end (the new point cover over the bloodstained wall), the problems in marriage does not end and seems to be a repetition of situation between the Thorwalds. These different narrative voices produced a layered narration. Hitchcock provides different mediating agencies to tell story which audience can classify the narrators between omniscient (Hitchcock) and subjective (Jeff). Work Cited Raubicheck, Walter., and Srebnick Walter, ed. Hitchcocks Rereleased Films. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. Print. Mulvey, Laura. Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Oxford University Press, 1975. Print.